Existentialism in Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot Essay...

Existential philosophy became prevalent in the twentieth century as a symbol of the destruction of culture and tradition following World War II, asserting the hopelessness of humanity and focusing on life in a more honest but pessimistic manner than other socialistic philosophies. The philosophy recognizes the fact that humankind is capable of great evil and has limitless possibilities, yet this is a curse rather than a blessing: we are condemned to be free and are thus held accountable for our actions. The ludicrousity, however, is found in the existentialist belief that life has no purpose, and while the choices that we make are irrelevant on grand scale, they ultimately influence our self-definition. Jean-Paul Sartre postulates that†¦show more content†¦Beckett?s characters constantly suffer as a direct result of this inability to understand: they ponder repenting about what Proust calls ?the sin of being born? and make references to Christ?s suffering: ?Vladimir: What?s Christ got to do with it? Estragon: All my life I?ve compared myself to him ?. And they crucified quick!? (Beckett 57) While Estragon?s reference to the crucifixion displays his sympathy towards human deterioration, it also implies that while Christ?s suffering was relatively short, life is a long struggle. In Proust?s understanding, to be born is to be a sinner, and thus man is condemned to suffer despite any choices he makes. Beckett?s pessimism is understandable, as he lived through two World Wars fighting in the second against the Nazis. Inevitably, he would have witnessed the horrors of war and the pointlessness of violence, waiting helplessly during the war for something to happen ? a long suffering compared to Christ?s untimely death. Beckett was clearly synonymous with the belief that death is the only certainty and salvation is never a guarantee. In the same approach, Sartre states that we live in a world of freedom and ontological responsibility where there are no certainties. Realization of uncertainty is impossible without self-awareness, and anxiety results from the recognition due to t he fact that the individual is surroundedShow MoreRelated Sartre’s Existentialism in Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot1572 Words   |  7 PagesSartre’s Existentialism in Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot Critics often misunderstand the quintessence of Sartre’s philosophy. Jean-Paul Sartre, in his lecture â€Å"Existentialism is Humanism,† remarks that â€Å"existence precedes essence† (2), that is, man first materializes and then searches for a purpose – an essence. Samuel Beckett, through his play Waiting for Godot, affirms Sartre’s core argument. Misinterpreting Godot, critic Edith contends that it differs fundamentallyRead More Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot: Existentialism and The Theatre of the Absurd2530 Words   |  11 Pagescentury, existentialism. This philosophy can clearly be seen in everyday life as well as in theatrical movements in the past and present. By examining the works of Samuel Beckett, evidence of existential thinking will be brought forward proving the progress of this philosophical movement. It will illustrate how existentialism has influenced Beckett, especially through his play, Waiting for Godot. The Theatre of the Absurd is another theatrical concept being examined proving that Samuel BeckettRead More Existentialism in Albert Camus The Plague and Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot945 Words   |  4 PagesAll of the characters in The Plague and Waiting For Godot exist in their fictional worlds. However, none is able to explain why. Neither work gives the reader an explanation of human existence except to say that humans exist. Providing an answer to the question of existence would constitute a paradox. To an existentialist, if you answer the question, then youve missed the whole point. Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes the uniqueness and isolation of the individual experience inRead MoreThoughtful Laughter in Beckets Waiting for Godot1199 Words   |  5 Pages Awakening Thoughtful Laughter in Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot Samuel Beckett’s use of humor can be seen throughout his repertoire of work, ranging from the exaggeratedly tragic lives of the two characters in Rough for Theater I to the mechanical prodding that is required to rouse the characters in Act Without Words II. The humor in Beckett’s work is given dimension by the fact that it addresses morbid themes such as death, poverty, suffering, and the crushing despair and apathy thatRead MoreBeckett vs Satre2361 Words   |  10 PagesCompare and contrast Sartre’s No Exit with Beckett’s Waiting for Godot. Samuel Beckett’s vision of two lowly tramps in the middle of a derelict environment can be placed in direct contrast to the claustrophobic and eternal nightmare presented by Jean-Paul Sartre , but each playwright possessed objectives for their respective audiences and each shared a valued opinion on the theories of existentialism which can be established in the plays Waiting for Godot and No Exit. Beckett introduces the audienceRead MoreOverview of Three Interpretations of Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot3226 Words   |  13 Pages Samuel Beckett wrote Waiting for Godot between October 1948 and January 1949. Since its premiere in January of 1953, it has befuddled and confounded critics and audiences alike. Some find it to be a meandering piece of drivel; others believe it to be genius. Much of the strain between the two sides stems from one simple question. What does this play mean? Even within camps where Waiting for Godot is heralded, the lack of clarity and consensu s brings about a tension and discussion that has lastedRead MoreWaiting for Godot Essay1096 Words   |  5 PagesWho is Godot and what does he represent? These are two of the questions that Samuel Beckett allows both his characters and the audience to ponder. Many experiences in this stage production expand and narrow how these questions are viewed. The process of waiting reassures the characters in Becketts play that they do indeed exist. One of the roles that Beckett has assigned to Godot is to be a savior of sorts. Godot helps to give the two tramps in Waiting for Godot a sense of purpose. Godot is anRead MoreSummary Of The Room And Waiting For Godot 952 Words   |  4 PagesLaurin Neely Professor Matthew Byrge English 2030-14 22 September 2015 Samuel Beckett and Harold Pinter Absurd Influences in Theatre There are a wide variety of theatrical movements that have occurred over time. One of these includes the theatre of the absurd. Theater of the absurd refers to the literary movement in drama popular throughout European countries from the 1940s to approximately 1989. A definition of the term absurdism is referred to a literary and philosophical movement that flourishedRead MoreSamuel Beckett : Theatre Of The Absurd And Beckett s Use Of The Literary Concept1071 Words   |  5 PagesSamuel Beckett: Theatre of the Absurd and Beckett’s Use of the Literary Concept Samuel Beckett’s works revolve around human despair and surviving in hopeless situations. His very first critical essay was Finnegans Wake. Much of his work is inspired by French philosophers. One of the most influential philosophers on Beckett was Descartes. Samuel Beckett gained his claim to fame in the writing community when he introduced the concept of absurdity, nihilism, and human despair to find the meaning ofRead More Brendan Behan’s The Quare Fellow and Samuel Beckett Essay1845 Words   |  8 PagesBrendan Behan’s The Quare Fellow and Samuel Beckett Existential works are difficult to describe because the definition of existentialism covers a wide range of ideas and influences almost to the point of ambiguity. An easy, if not basic, approach to existentialism is to view it as a culmination of attitudes from the oppressed people of industrialization, writers and philosophers during the modern literary period, and people who were personally involved as civilians, soldiers, or rebels during

The Decision Making Process Whitney Noonan - 2267 Words

The Decision Making Process Whitney Noonan Columbia College Introduction The decision making process includes cognitive processes that eventually lead to a choice in action while taking into consideration the alternative possibilities (Allen, Dorozenko, Roberts, 2016). Not all choices have to lead to an action. The values and preferences of the person making the choice also comes into play when making the final decision. Problem-solving to obtain a certain goal or satisfactory by a solution is the main reason people go through the decision making process (Stefaniak, Tracey, 2014). This process has many factors that end with one final result or solution. The decisions made can be rational or irrational and can be determined by explicit or tacit knowledge (Qingyao, Dongyu, Weihua, 2016). Since the decision making process can be very difficult at time, psychologists have viewed the process in different perspectives to get a better understanding (Rossi, Picchi, Di Stefano, Marongiu, Scarsini, 2015). The different perspectives include; psychological, cogni tive, and normative or communicative rationality. Steps The decision making process follows the same steps every time a decision is made. The first step is to analysis the problem presented thoroughly (Rossi, Picchi, Di Stefano, Marongiu, Scarsini, 2015). Questions such as; what is the problem?, and why should the problem be solved? May need to be answered before the person engages in the

Othello and Iago Free Essays

In the 21 st century everything has become more visualized. The books do not have the same power as they used to have in the previous centuries. Nowadays, many books or written stories have been made into screen adoption . We will write a custom essay sample on Othello and Iago or any similar topic only for you Order Now William Shakespeare wrote Othello the Moor of Venice to be performed. There are more than fifty movies, ballet performances and musicals about Othello. Each of them is different and shows a director’s unique perspective. What is it about this piece that makes people perform it so many times? In each generation people are trying to visualize the immortal theme of how manipulation and jealousy can change people’s lives. For example, in the movie Othello (1995) Oliver Parker contradicts with the text and shows the audience his view and understanding of the literary text. In the movie Othello (1995) with Laurence Fishburne, Parker, the director, uses actor’s performance, symbolic scenes and decor to help the audience emotionally understand the text. Parker’s production of the movie is very close to the original play. He uses the same language and wording, but visualization and his perspective of the play helps the audience experience empathy towards characters. For example, in the text Desdemona’s father describes her, â€Å" A maiden never bold / of spirit so still and quiet that her motion blushed at herself †(I. III . 94-96). In the movie the actress is young, beautiful and seems very innocent. Othello is described in the text as an exotic character, who shows an animalistic side. Roderigo says about Othello, â€Å"To the gross clasps of a lascivious Moor / †¦An extravagant and wheeling stranger†. (I. I. 126, 136). When Iago talks to Brabantio and tries to convince him that his daughter is with Othello he compares Othello to an animal. Iago says, â€Å"You’ll have your daughter covered with a Barbary horse†. I. I. 112). Or he also says, â€Å"Your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs† (I. I. 116). In the movie Othello has an intimidating appearance. He has pierced ears, wears jewelry and has tattoos. The right casting of characters helps to reveal them and grow parti cular attitude towards these characters in the movie. The audience when looking at beautiful and young Desdemona will most likely take her side and have compassion towards her. In contrast to Desdemona, Othello is more brutal and reveals bellicosity and rigidity. In the text Shakespeare describes Othello as a great warrior, who has suffered a lot. He doesn’t know much about love or peaceful life without battles. Othello says about himself: â€Å"Rude am I in my speech, / and little blessed with the soft phrase of piece†¦ The story of my life / from year to year-the battles, sieges, fortunes / that I have passed†¦ (I. III. 81-83, 129-131). This describes Othello as unexperienced, impulsive person, who is more used to violence than love. In the text when Iago tells Othello that Desdemona is not honest with him, Othello burst out at Iago: â€Å"Be sure of it; give me the ocular proof; or, by the worth of mine eternal soul, thou hadst been better born a dog than answer my waked wrath! (III.. III. 361-364). Othello is jealous of Desdemona but because he has no proof of it, he works his anger on Iago. In the movie Parker introduces a scene where Othello tries to drown Iago in the sea to emphasize Othello’s anger. Another scene where Othello shows his violence is when he slaps Desdemona across her face. One thing that can explain Othello’s inability to control anger and be violent is that he is left without his duty. He was send to Cyprus to defend people from the Turks but the war has never happened because of the storm that killed the Turks. Othello is left with himself, his thoughts and relationships with Desdemona. Marriage is a new experience to him, he does not know how to behave. Othello doubt his decision of getting married to Desdemona. He says, â€Å"Why did I marry? †¦O curse of marriage, / That we can call these delicate creatures ours, / and not their appetites! † (III. III. 242, 268-270). He is not used to a peaceful life, but violence and anger. Iago is using Othello’s frustration and strategy to convince Othello in Desdemona’s unfaithfulness. In the movie Parker makes Iago talk to the audience that helps develop and understand his plan, how is going to implement it. His ideas are clear and make sense, but audience still doesn’t know how the other characters will react to it and whether he will be successful or not. Parker leave that to the last scene when wounded Iago lies on the dead bodies of Othello, Desdemona and his wife. In this production Parker chooses and correctly considers the historical element by using the medieval costumes corresponding to that time, settings and decor of Venice with old buildings and canals with gondolas. However, he adds couple scenes that changes the audience’s perception of the text. In the beginning of the movie the audience see a couple in the gondola. The man covers his face with a mask, and then the young woman runs on the empty streets of Venice covering her face. This shows the audience that this couple are involved in some kind of a secret. Parker uses a cliche of a secret relationship by making the first scene happened at night, covering man’s face with a mask. This scene intrigues the audience and make it believe that this could be a love story movie. Compare to the text where Iago and Roderigo are the first ones to be presented in the text. They talk about how Iago didn’t get position of the lieutenant and how both of them hate the Moor. Iago says: â€Å"Were I the Moor, I would not be Iago. / In following him, I follow but myself; / Heaven is my judge, not I for love or duty, / but seeming so, for my peculiar end;†(I. I. 58-60). Only in the middle of the act I scene I, readers understand that Brabantio’s daughter secretly got married to the Moor and that is how Iago and Roderigo can use this against him. Iago says: â€Å"I m one, sir, that comes to tell you your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs†. (I. I . 116-117). Parker’s deviation from text catches the viewers attention better than just dry talks of Iago and Roderigo. Another movie innovation is when Parker makes Othello dream about Desdemona and Cassio being together. This emphasizes how much Othello is moved by that news. In the text Shakespeare makes Othello fall into epilepsy instead. Parker is also using symbol of the handkerchief. The symbol of handkerchief is important in the play. Othello gives special power to it. He says: That handkerchief Did an Egyptian to my mother give. She was a charmer, and could almost read The thoughts of people. She told her, while she kept it, Twould make her amiable and subdue my father Entirely to her love; but if she lost it Or made a gift of it, my father’s eye Should hold her loathed, and his spirits should hunt after new fancies. †( III. IV.. 50-58). In the movie Parker makes the handkerchief fly or fall on the black background in a slow motion. By doing so, he shows the audience the end of Othello and Desdemona’s love and predicts their death. Another symbolic scene that Parker introduces into the movie and doesn’t exist in the text is when Iago stands next to a pit and makes two figures that represent Othello and Desdemona fall into that pit. Parker compares Othello and Desdemona to the figures on the chessboard that were played and manipulated by Iago. Basically, he says that all that it was just a tactical game. He though connects that scene to another scene when Othello’s and Desdemona’s bodies are dumped to the sea. This parallel shows the audience hopelessness of the situation. This symbolic scene with figures explains how Parker understands parallels and hidden tips shown in the play. Shakespeare uses words and repeats phrases in the text to predict the end and guide the reader through the play. For example, in the text when Brabantio says to Othello, â€Å"Look to her, Moor, if thou hast eyes to see: / She has deceived her father, and may thee. † (I. III. 291-292). Othello responds to him, â€Å"My life upon her faith! † (I. III. 294). Later in the text, Iago mentions it again to Othello. He says, â€Å"Look at your wife; / wear your eyes thus, not jealous nor secure†¦ She did deceive her father, marrying you;( III. III. 197, 198, 206). At the end of the play Othello does exactly what he said before- he gives his life upon Desdemona’s faith and kills himself. Movies that are based on the plays or the books are showing the audience only one perception of that play or book, which is presented by the point of view of the director. Talented directors know that it is very hard to present the correct idea better than the original text. However, by making minor changes such as introducing symbolic scenes, choosing the right actors or the appropriate decor, the movie can guide the audience to a better understanding of the play. It can also help to develop new interpretations of the text. How to cite Othello and Iago, Papers Othello and Iago Free Essays Iago has a reputation for honesty, for reliability and direct speaking. Othello and others in the play constantly refer to him as â€Å"honest Iago. † He has risen through the ranks in the army by merit and achievement, and Othello, whose military judgment is excellent, has taken him as  ancient  (captain) because of his qualities. We will write a custom essay sample on Othello and Iago or any similar topic only for you Order Now In Iago, Shakespeare shows us a character who acts against his reputation. Possibly Iago was always a villain and confidence trickster who set up a false reputation for honesty, but how can one set up a reputation for honesty except by being consistently honest over a long period of time? Alternatively he might be a man who used to be honest in the past, but has decided to abandon this virtue. Shakespeare has built the character of Iago from an idea already existing in the theatrical culture of his time: the Devil in religious morality plays, which developed into the villain in Elizabethan drama and tragedy. Iago says (I. 1, 65) â€Å"I am not what I am,† which can be interpreted as â€Å"I am not what I seem. † But it is also reminiscent of a quotation from the Bible which Shakespeare would have known: In Exodus, God gives his laws to Moses on Mt. Sinai, and Moses asks God his name. God replies: â€Å"I am that I am† (Exodus, iii, 14). If â€Å"I am that I am† stands for God, then Iago’s self-description, â€Å"I am not what I am† is the direct opposite. Iago is the opposite of God, that is, he is the Devil. Iago in this play, has the qualities of the Devil in medieval and Renaissance morality plays: He is a liar, he makes promises he has no intention of keeping, he tells fancy stories in order to trap people and lead them to their destruction, and he sees other’s greatest vulnerabilities and uses these to destroy them. Iago does all this not for any good reason, but for love of evil. Iago is surrounded with bitter irony: he is not as he seems, his good is bad for others, people repeatedly rely on him, and he betrays them. He likes to have others unwittingly working to serve his purposes. But for all this, as his plot against Othello starts moving and gathering momentum, he loses control of it and must take real risks to prevent it from crashing. Iago is a man with an obsession for control and power over others who has let this obsession take over his whole life. Necessity forces his hand, and, in order to destroy Othello, he must also destroy Rodrigo, Emilia, Desdemona, and ultimately himself. The one man who survived Iago’s attempt to kill him, Cassio, is the only major character left standing at the end of the play. For someone to constantly lie and deceive one’s wife and friends, one must be extremely evil or, in the case of Iago, amoral. In every scene in which Iago speaks one can point out his deceptive manner. Iago tricks Othello into believing that his own wife is having an affair, without any concrete proof. Othello is so caught up in Iago’s lies that he refuses to believe Desdemona when she denies the whole thing. Much credit must be given to Iago’s diabolical prowess which enables him to bend and twist the supple minds of his friends and spouse. In today’s society Iago would be called a psychopath without a conscience not the devil incarnate. Iago also manages to steal from his own friend without the slightest feeling of guilt. He embezzles the money that Rodrigo gives him to win over Desdemona. When Rodrigo discovers that Iago has been hoarding his money he screams at Iago and threatens him. However, when Iago tells him some fanciful plot in order to capture Desdemona’s heart Rodrigo forgets Iago’s theft and agrees to kill Cassio. Iago’s keen intellect is what intrigues the reader most. His ability to say the right things at the right time is what makes him such a successful villain. However, someone with a conscience would never be able to keep up such a ploy and deceive everyone around him. This is why it is necessary to say that Iago is amoral, because if you don’t his character becomes fictional and hard to believe. At the climactic ending of the play, Iago’s plot is given away to Othello by his own wife, Emilia. Iago sees his wife as an obstacle and a nuisance so he kills her. He kills her not as much out of anger but for pragmatic reasons. Emilia is a stumbling block in front of his path. She serves no purpose to him anymore and she can now only hurt his chances of keeping the position he has been given by Othello. Iago’s merciless taking of Emilia’s and Rodrigo’s lives is another proof of his amorality. | How to cite Othello and Iago, Essay examples

International Business Law

Questions: 1. a) Outline and discuss each partys likely legal rights and liabilities in relation to the first and second shipments by reference to Australian law and where applicable referring to the CISG.b) Would Sino Steel be entitled to terminate the remainder of the contract the April 2016 instalment and if so what consequences would follow?2. a)How might the parties best cooperate?b)Assuming that only the false certificate issued and that alternatively only the incorrect letter of credit issued, what would be the respective innocent partys legal rights?3.Outline and appraise the applicable GATT/WTO, bilateral and regional free trade agreement (AANZFTA), and WTO sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement sourced rules which govern the Australia-Philippine banana trade and consider whether Australia can rely on strict SPS quarantine rules to discourage imports. Answers: 1. a) The General Rights and Obligations of Parties The Convention places a duty on any seller to avail the goods, provide the stipulated documents in relation to these goods and finally to hand over property in the goods upon completion of the contract (CISG, Art. 31). Additionally, the seller is obliged to deliver the goods in the quality and quantity described in the contract of sale (CISG, Art.35). In order to ensure the provisions with regard to quality and quantity are met, the Seller it required to inspect the goods prior to packaging or sealing them in the container as provided by the Convention. With the regard to the buyer, the general obligations include the duty to pay for the goods and the duty to take delivery as provided by Article 53 of the CISG Convention. Payment of goods constitutes undertaking the required formalities to facilitate payment such as applying for a letter of credit. Consequently, failure to adhere or fulfil either of the above obligations would constitute a breach of contract(Clayton Steven, 2016). However, the law provides for certain circumstances under which a party would be exempted from liability (United Nations Commission on International Trade, 1980). The First Shipment The first shipment, in February 2016, was characterised by a delay with the letter of credit at the sellers bank and a delay in shipment of the goods from the seller to the buyer. The issues arising based on this delay are first, whether a delay with the letter of credit constituted a lack of performance on the buyers part and secondly whether the delay in shipment gave rise to any liabilities against the seller. Letters of Credit A letter of credit is, usually, an irrevocable committal of a banking institution expressed to the seller on the buyers behalf expressing a promise to pay a certain sum upon the receipt of goods or items for sale(Richard, et al., 2012). The buyers bank issues a letter of credit in the sellers favour which is communicated through the sellers bank (Justin Bernard, 2014). Denning LJ illustrated the significance of letters of credit by stating that they assure the seller of payment upon delivery of goods and presentation of required documents and similarly ensure that payment is not made until the goods as described in the contract are delivered thus protecting the interests of both parties (Pavia Co. SpA v Thurmann-Nielson, 1952). In most cases, the application for a letter of credit is treated as a pre-requisite to the conveyance of goods and as such without it, a seller is not obliged to perform his duties as per the contract (Indira Stone, 2013). Letters of credit enjoy autonomy f rom the sales contract as illustrated in Maurice OMeara Co v National Park Bank of NY (1925) but are subject to the doctrine of strict compliance in that any documents presented to request payment should be in line with the descriptions provided in the letter of credit (Richard, et al., 2012). Additionally, Art.27 of the CISG provides that where either of the parties requires communication to be made with regard to the sale of goods, any delay or error encountered in transmitting this communication, where the appropriate measures have been taken on the senders part, will not disentitle the sending party from relying on the information. This is to say, that where errors occur but a party has done their part to ensure communication has passed, failure in transmission will not render them to have failed in performance. In the case study provided, there was a 14-day delay in receipt of the Letter of Credit at Queensland bank. The delay was however as a result of the errors at the sellers bank. The buyer had neither failed to apply nor send the letter of credit. From the discussion above, it can be adduced that where a letter of credit is a pre-requisite to performance and it is not applied for or issued, then the seller is not obligated to commence performance and the contract can even be avoided. However, the provision in Art.27 excludes the buyer, Sino Steel, from any liability because the delay in communicating the Letter of Credit was not as a result of their failure to perform their obligations but a failure in transmission by the sellers bank. The CISG seeks to unify as well as promote international trade, and as such, it provides for the extension of time to allow for the application and subsequent receipt of letters of credit or any other documents required to facilitate trade. Delay in Shipment A delay in shipment amounts to a delay in performance of the contract by the seller. The legal issue arising from the delay is the effect it will have on the contract and the legal rights available to the aggrieved party as a result of the delay. Art.33 of the CISG imposes an obligation on a seller to deliver goods within the time frame outlined by the contract. Failure to deliver subsequently constitutes a failure to perform. Where the seller fails or delays in performance, a buyer is open to a variety of remedies. Firstly, they may choose to allow additional time to facilitate performance, secondly they may file a claim for damages resulting from the losses suffered, they may also request a renegotiation in price by way of a discount or opt to avoid the contract where they find the losses suffered from the delay a fundamental breach of the contract(United Nations Commission on International Trade, 1980). In the scenario provided Sino Steel is entitled to all these remedies with regard to the delay in shipment by Ferrum Co. in February 2016. However, as the shipment was received, should Ferrum Co. decide to avoid the contract, they would still be obligated to pay for the goods they accepted. The Second Shipment The issues arising from the second shipment are whether the delay in loading, caused by flooding, led to any breach of performance on the sellers part. This will be decided by analysing force majeure and the rights and liabilities of parties to a contract with regard to frustrating events. The second shipment was also marred by error which led to the transportation of an inappropriate iron ore quality to the buyer. This error gives rise to the issue of conformity, inspection and certification which are obligations set out in law that a seller is to comply with while performing his end of a contract. Frustrating Events Under English Common Law, which is applied in Australia, frustration occurs where a contractual obligation cannot be executed, without either partys interference, as performance under the available circumstances would technically constitute a breach (Davis Contractors Ltd v Fareham Urban District Council, 1956). According to Viscount Simon LC in Joseph Constantine Steamship Line Ltd v Imperial Smelting Corp. Ltd [1942], a frustrating even would normally terminate the contract, however, where a party continues to perform, they are entitled to remuneration (Robin Bath, 2009). Not every event which renders performance challenging constitutes a frustrating event(British Movietone News Ltd v London and District Cinemas Ltd , 1952). This doctrine is embodied in Article 79 of the CISG which refers to impediments without control. Under the convention, the existence of an impediment will not terminate the contract, but merely suspend it until it can be resumed (Robin Bath, 2009). Where a cl ause with regard to frustrating events is lacking, contracting parties can rely on Article 79 of the CISG which provides for exemption from liability for as long as the impediment exists(Justin Bernard, 2014). With regard to Ferrum Corps case, the flood can be said to constitute a frustrating event for which the exporter can rely on Article 79 to be exempted from liability as there is no express force majeure clause mentioned in the agreement. The flood was an unforeseen impediment to the sellers performance which neither he nor any reasonable person, could have predicted. Inspection, Certification and Conformity Inspection certificates are some of the documents received by the bank from a seller who wishes to claim payment by letter of credit (Robin Bath, 2009). The certificate affirms to the buyer that the goods were inspected prior to loading and upon testing complied with the description required by the contract (Justin Bernard, 2014). Sellers are expected to meet all the terms stipulated in the contract and outlined in the letter of credit in order to receive payment where certification is required (Richard, et al., 2009). The doctrine of strict compliance is applied in affirming whether the certificate provided adheres to the descriptions in the letter of credit(Richard, et al., 2009). Non-conformity, with regard to the quality of the product, imposes a liability on the seller according to the CISG Art. 36. In the case study provided, the first agreement required self-certification from Ferrum Corp. as to the quality of the iron ore. A loading error on the March 2016 instalment led to the inappropriate quality of iron ore being shipped. The quality of the iron ore was a contradiction to the Certificate of Inspection issued as well as the requirements of the letter of credit. In the steel industry, poor quality raw materials would lead to poor quality products consequently resulting in loss of profits as what they produce would be sold at a lower price. These facts provide justification for a breach of contract on the part of the seller. The loss in profits creates a detriment so great as to constitute a fundamental breach. However if the seller can prove that the shipping of the poor quality iron ore was a failure on the part of a third party and that he had done all that was required to ensure the right quality of product was shipped out and was unaware of the non-conformity, then he c an rely on Art.79 of the CISG to exempt himself from liability. The CISG provides alternative remedies such as a request for substitute conforming goods so as to ensure the contract is concluded and not terminated. b) The CISG, under article 29, provides for termination of a contract at any time on the agreement of both parties(Clayton Steven, 2016). Additionally, where an action or inaction of a party causes the other great detriment as to deprive them of his rights in the contract, the aggrieved party can opt to avoid the contract, discharging both parties of any future obligations(United Nations Commission on International Trade, 1980). Section V of the Convention outlines the expected consequences should a party opt to avoid a contract. However, where a party has performed their end of the bargain, to any given degree, they can claim restitution for the work done. If restitution cannot be made, then the contract cannot be avoided. Sino Steel can rely on these two provisions to terminate the contract relating to the third shipment expected in April. That is, should they wish to terminate the contract, a simple agreement with Ferrum Steel will suffice. If they opt to avoid the contract, they should ensure that they can completely compensate Ferrum Co. for the shipments made in February and March as well as any other claims due to them. 2. a) The challenges experienced in this scenario were caused by third parties and not as a result of the action or omission of the original parties to the contract. Art.79 excludes the parties from any liabilities caused by second parties. Cooperation would be best applied if they decide to liaise together to rectify the mistakes as well as institute action against the liable third parties. Termination of the contract based on third party errors would not be in the best interests of either party. The CISG provides guidelines to ensure continuity of the contract where such challenges arise. b) False Certificate A fraudulent employee at Gladstone Iron Testing led to the issuance of a false certificate whose assertions did not match the actual quality of the iron ore transported and therefore were in contradiction to the description in the Letter of Credit. The legal issue arising in this scenario is the effect of fraud by a third party on the contract as a whole. This will be decided by analysing how courts have dealt with fraudulent documents presented to claim payment on letters of credit. International trade law applies a strict doctrine of autonomy where letters of credit are considered independent of any sales contract and as such, any issuing bank is only concerned with the accuracy of the sellers documents and not the quality, quantity or legitimacy of the goods(Richard, et al., 2009). However, the strict nature of this doctrine is eased by the fraud exception which, according to Lord Diplock, applies where a beneficiary consciously presents documents containing fraudulent material to the confirming bank (United City Merchants (Investments) Ltd v Royal Bank of Canada (The American Accord), 1983). A confirming bank can however not decline to make a payment where it is convinced that the presented documents are congruent with the letter of credit(Richard, et al., 2009). Where a party is convinced of fraud, the onus is on them to prove it, which is usually difficult to establish as was the case in Hortico (Australia) Pty Ltd v Energy Equipment Co (Australia) Pty Ltd (1985) 1 NSW 545. According to English Law, fraud emanating from the actions of a third party will not be considered as fraud in the contract so as to have the effect of allowing a bank to deny payment(Richard, et al., 2009). In the case study provided, the fraudulent party was a third party to the contract whose services were sought to certify the quality of the ore. There is no evidence as to whether either of the contracting parties was involved or aware of any fraudulent activities, therefore neither can be held liable or denied performance as a result of the third parties actions. The innocent parties can file a suit to claim damages against Gladstone Iron Testing for providing a false certificate which led to a shipment containing an inappropriate quality of goods. Additionally, if the seller can provide proof that the buyer had colluded with the Gladstone employee for a false certificate of inspection, they will then be entitled to request the bank not to pay the seller on the ground of fraud. Incorrect Letter of Credit An error by a Shanghai Bank Officer led to the issuing of a letter of credit where none was required. This means that Queensland bank would receive a letter of credit entitling the seller to payment where no performance was required. The legal issue arising from this error is on of mistake. As has been repeatedly mentioned in the discussion above, CISGs main objective revolves around unifying and facilitating international trade and as such most of its remedies revolve around ensuring the continuance of the contract. Therefore, the mistake of issuing a letter of credit where none was required would not constitute a breach of contract so serious as to be considered fundamental and as such can be corrected through the cooperation of the parties to rectify it. 3. A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is an international agreement that eradicates restrictions to trade and enables well-founded trade and commercial ties, thus increasing economic unity among member states ( Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, n.d.). It is created when two or more countries agree to do away with customs duties and other barriers to trade carried out among them(Richard, et al., 2009). Arte, extensive FTAs are significant in ensuring liberalisation of international trade and are expressly provided for under the World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules ( Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, n.d.). These rules require the removal of charges and other limitations in almost all trade in goods as well as the elimination of almost all discrimination with regard to services supplied with and by member states ( Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, n.d.). In this question, the paper aims to identify the var ious rules and agreements that would govern a mutual free trade agreement with regard to the banana industry between Australia and the Philippines. It will also seek to identify the possible Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures applicable by Australia and the effect they will have on trade. In doing this, the paper will rely on policies outlined in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement (AANZFTA) and the WTOs SPS Agreement. Rules and Policies Governing the Australian-Philippine Banana Industry The GATT was first established in 1947 and later revised in 1994 during the Uruguay Round as a framework to facilitate world trade (Matthias, 2016). It serves as the most important multilateral trade agreement and aims to liberalise international trade through the step by step elimination of restrictive trade practices and other defensive intrusions with regard to global as well as national market competition(Matthias, 2016). The basic principles of the GATT are non-discrimination and liberalisation(WTO, n.d.). Non-discrimination emanates in form of the Most-Favoured-Nation principle where a member is required to treat all members as equal, in that, if a favour is granted to one member, it should be granted to all others in the same situation (Kenneth, 2011). Another principle of non-discrimination is the National Treatment principle which required equal treatment of foreign and local traders. These principles are embodied in Articles 2 and 3 of the GATT respectively (WTO, n.d.). The WTO rules apply a balancing test with regard to the protection of the public versus the restriction of cross-border trade however, they tend to favour the eradication of restrictions over individual state protective measures as seen in Thailand Restrictions on Importation of Cigarettes Case (1991), where restriction to cigarette imports were seen as contravening the GATT. In the restriction of imports, a country can rely on the Escape Clause provided under Article XIX, which allows a country to depart from performing or upholding previous promises (Richard, et al., 2012). However, the escaping party must prove that their departure is due to injury caused by increased imports on its domestic producers as held in Argentina Safeguard Measures on Imports of Footwear (WTO 1999). In the case study provided, a free trade agreement between Australia and the Philippines will be a great step towards the liberation of international trade. It is expected, however, that both parties ensure non-discrimination in the trade of bananas both internationally and within their respective borders. Where a party is convinced, and can provide evidence to the same effect, that this agreement is detrimental to their local banana traders, and then a suspension can be granted by way of the Escape Clause so as to allow revision of the terms of trade. It is important to note however that, as the objective of GATT is the reduction of trade restrictions, any restrictions are likely to only apply until an alternative solution is obtained. The Agreement Establishing the ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Area, enforced in January 2010, remains to be the most purposeful and inclusive trade agreement negotiated by the region's members to date(Christopher, 2015). With regard to the sale of goods, the agreement upholds the provisions of the WTO while including more specific commitments as well as enhancing transparency. The SPS Measures provide that a country has every right to embark in protecting its human, animal and plant life or health, however, it cannot use this right to discriminate on trading activities with other countries(Richard, et al., 2012). Any SPS measure should conform to the international standards and guidelines provided by the WTO-SPS Agreements as well as those outlined in the GATT 1994(World Trade Organization, 1995). The measures should be transparent and based on proper scientific evidence (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, n.d.). They measures should balance the level of protection required, against the extent of restriction on trade(Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, n.d.). In the case study provided, either of the parties has the right to employ SPS measures to protect its people, animals and plants. However, the restrictions employed are subject to various qualifications. Firstly, they should be consistent with the SPS Agreement as well as the rules on SPS measures outlined in the GATT 1994. Additionally, any proposed SPS measure should be accompanied by adequate scientific evidence to show threats to life and health that will emanate if the measure is not put in place. Most importantly, in as much as a party would like to apply protective measures, these measures should not be so restrictive as to curtail or discriminate on trade. With this in mind, it is evident that Australia can apply SPS measures, but the purpose of these measures should not be to restrict trade and neither should the measures be so strict as to constitute discrimination. Bibliography Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, n.d. Free Trade Agreements. [Online] Available at: https://dfat.gov.au/trade/agreements/Pages/about-ftas.aspx [Accessed 23 September 2016]. ASEAN, Australia and New Zealand, 2012. ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement (AANZFTA). s.l.:s.n. Bonython v Commonwealth of Australia (1951) AC 201. British Movietone News Ltd v London and District Cinemas Ltd (1952) AC 166. Clayton Utz, 2015. Australian Contract Law. [Online] Available at: https://www.acc.com/legalresources/quickcounsel/australian-contract-law.cfm [Accessed 23 September 2016]. Clayton, P. G. Steven, D. W., 2016. The UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods. s.l.:Cambridge University Press. Davis Contractors Ltd v Fareham Urban District Council (1956) AC 696. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, n.d. The WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement: Why You Need to Know, s.l.: Australian Government. Ewan, M. Qiao, L., 2015. Contract Law: Australian Edition. s.l.:Palgrave Macmillan. Finnish Fur Sales Co. Ltd v Juliette Shulof Furs Inc. (1991) 770 F. Supp.139 SNDY. Ghele, B., 2008. Dealing With the Unknown-Which Law Really Applies to your International Contract?. [Online] Available at: https://www.claytonutz.com/knowledge/2008/june/dealing-with-the-unknown-which-law-really-applies-to-your-international-contract [Accessed 23 September 2016]. Hayward, B. Pullen, P., 2011. The CISG in Australia: the jigsaw puzzle that doesn't quite fit. Vindobona Journal of International Commercial law and Arbitration, 15(1), pp. 119-156. Hortico (Australia) Pty Ltd v Energy Equipment Co. (Australia) Pty Ltd (1985) 1 New South Wales Law Reports 545. Indira, C. Stone, P., 2013. International Trade Law. s.l.:Routledge. Joseph Constantine Steamship Line Ltd v Imperial Smelting Corp. Ltd (1942) AC 154. Justin, M. Bernard, B., 2014. Australian Export. s.l.:Cambridge University Press. Kenneth, A. R., 2011. An Introduction to International Economics: New Perspectives on the World Economy. s.l.:Cambridge University Press. Kim Mellor Imports Pty Ltd v Eurolevant SpA (1986) 7 NSWLR 269. Larry, A. D., 2014. International Sales Law: A Global Challenge. s.l.:Cambridge University Press. Levingston, J., 2008. Choice of Law, Jurisdiction and ADR Clauses. s.l., s.n. Matthias, H., 2016. Principles of International Economic Law. s.l.:Oxford University Press. Pavia Co. SpA v Thurmann-Nielson (1952) 2 QB 84. Re Missouri Steamship Co. (1889) 42 Ch D 321 (CA). Richard, S., Filiberto, A. Beverley, E., 2009. International Business Law and its Environment. 7th ed. s.l.:Cengage Learning. Richard, S., Filiberto, A., Lucien, J. D. Beverley, E., 2012. International Business Law and Its Environment. 8th ed. s.l.:Cengage Learning. Robin, B. Bath, V., 2009. Law of International Business in Australasia. s.l.:Federation Press. Saxvy v Fulton (1909) 2 KB 208. Sid, W. Danielle, B., 2012. Does Your Choice of Law for the Contract Extend to the International Arbitration Agreement?. [Online] Available at: https://www.claytonutz.com/knowledge/2012/august/does-your-choice-of-law-for-the-contract-extend-to-the-international-arbitration-agreement [Accessed 23 September 2016]. Sulamerica CIA Nacional De Seguros SA v Enesa Engenharia SA (2012) EWCA Civ 638. The 'August' (1891) P 328. UNICTRAL Secretariat, 1980. Explanatory note on the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, s.l.: United Nations. United City Merchants (Investments) Ltd v Royal Bank of Canada (The American Accord) (1983) 1 Appeal Cases 168. United Nations Commission on International Trade, 1980. United Nations Convention on Contracts for the Sale of Goods, s.l.: United Nations. United Nations, 1947. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, s.l.: s.n. United Nations, 1994. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), s.l. World Trade Organization. Vita Food Products Inc v Unus Shipping Co. Ltd (1939) AC 277. World Trade Organization, 1995. Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement, s.l.: WTO. WTO, n.d. Principles of the Trading System. [Online] Available at: https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/fact2_e.htm [Accessed 23 September 2016].

Elements Of Drama Essay Example

Elements Of Drama Essay Elements Of Drama The dictionary definition of Drama is the activity of acting, or simply a play for theatre, the elements however that make up this intricate and diverse art form are far more complex than the concluding definition. The elements of Drama are essentially building blocks that culminate in the finality of this wholesome, rigorous activity. A simple way to understand a form as complex as Drama, Is to look at It as a physical project, Like building a house. The first and most Important element Is the theme of the Drama. The main, starting Idea, the whole motive behind the play, the realization of what you want your audiences to feel and experience and what you want to produce. The theme can be looked at as basic criteria that you would have for your dream house, the kind of view that you want, the amount of land, the locality, basically the first steps in narrowing down on a concrete idea for what you want. The next logical step in terms of getting a house is buying a plot of land, and the next logical element of Drama is the plot as well. We will write a custom essay sample on Elements Of Drama specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Elements Of Drama specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Elements Of Drama specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The plot is an outline of the course of events, its always in the present but can also include a flashback. The plot is the entire narration, the occurrences that bring out the theme, and comprise the whole story. Once you have your plot of land, you start building the structure of your house. Similarly, the next element of Drama is the structure of the play, which comprises of the beginning, the exposition or the middle, which spills into the transition, or the ending, which inevitably results in some kind of resolution. Once the house is ready, people move in and make the house a home; they infuse it with their energy, relationships, conflicts and personality. Like this, you must inject in characters and legislations to the structure to carry the plot forward. These characters can be realistic or imaginative or abstract. These characters are tools with which the drama Is presented, the plot played out and the theme revealed. Another tool that Is essential in Drama is the use of language. The language in a play is a form of expression, a direct confirmation for the direction that the plot is headed. The language can be symbolic; It must always give perspective and can even Incorporate Imagery. The language also has a tendency to spill Into a fragmented form, and almost always as some sort of a texture, which basically translates Into the overall feel of the characters and setting. This Is where sound value comes In, It Is Important to note that dictionary words have sound value too, even silence does, and It communicates the intellectual meaning of the word, or the sound in accordance to the feeling. For example, the word rough will still have the same sound value even if its said angrily or lovingly. Theatricality is created through conflict, without any conflict, the storyline will be static, the theme wont get across and it wont have any impact on the audience. Conflict is essential in drama, as it results in theatricality, the ups and downs in the storyline creates interest and is needed to establish the purpose of the play. Examples of conflict can vary from conflicts between two or more people, groups of people or even conflict within oneself, as in the character. The arousal of conflict generates suspense about the outcome of the conflict, which in turn helps the structure make sense and come together. The concluding and most practical aspect of Drama is the feasibility of the play. This takes into account the target audience, the recitalists, the objective or even the kind of actors that are required for the execution of the play. This aspect of Drama takes into consideration the technical and practical aspects of the play in terms of the requirements for its execution. In conclusion, all afore mentioned elements of Drama are instrumental in the becoming any play and provide a stable foundation for theatre productions to thrive on. Drama is a complex, diverse and wholesome form of expression, but there is a method behind its madness, a criteria and a process that validates or appreciates the dramaturgy of plays. By: Janis Kapok

In Search of Excellence Book Review essays

In Search of Excellence Book Review essays In Search of Excellence is a book dealing with many different principles of economics and what makes big business' excellent. The first idea that Peters discusses is his chart of the McKinsey 7-S Framework. The graph is very simple but the ideas are fairly complex. In their research, they found that their philosophies were too hard to explain and easily forgettable. They made this Framework to deal with strategy, structure, style, systems, staff (people), skills, and shared values (culture). This has 7 S's (easy to remember) and a graphical representation to visualize. This shows the businessman that the intractable, irrational, intuitive, and informal organization can be managed. For example, anyone assuming that a new manager of a Taco Bell will perform exactly as the old manager did is ridiculous. The organization of workers must adjust and adapt to the new manager's way of business. Another more main topic of the novel is the Eight Basic Principles. Their research had shown that the excellent companies had been based on the basics. The companies had to try to keep things simple. Sometimes, to a big business, it might seem logical that business should be run more complex the larger it is. From their research, this is usually not true. The first pricnciple is a bias for action. This is basically saying "Stop talking and do something about it." When Taco Bell has a rush of customers and their supplies for making food are low, they (usually) don't say "You know what, I have no more cheese" or "Could someone get me some more cheese?" They take action and get the cheese, make it if necessary, and get the problem solved as quickly as possible. The second Principle they deal with is to be close to the customer. This means good service and listening to what the customer has to say. If the producer, Taco Bell, is not in touch with what the customer wants to eat, then the business will most likely fail. Although it also refers to custo...

COM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

COM - Essay Example d allows for the viewer to further integrate with the action that is taking place on the screen, the theme of the movie itself, and whether or not the actors were ultimately believable in their roles. Firstly, with regards the music which was utilized in the film, this is perhaps the strongest element that helps to tie the plot in with the ultimate sense of frustration, suspense, and drama that is represented on the screen. All too often, films simply seek to fill a musical score with something so that this potential element will be fulfilled. However, with regards to the film in question, the music was expertly presented so that the drama, suspense, and anguish that were represented within the scenes could be evoked to a more full and complete degree. Another definitive element that helps to set this film apart from many others is with respect to the way in which the actors which were chosen were perfectly suited and believable in the roles that they reflected. Although it is of course possible that a number of different actors could of been chosen facilities role in just as satisfactory a manner, the way in which Franka Potente was able to represent a steelish determination alongside a fragile an almost childlike sense of never giving up hope, denotes the fact that this actor was perfectly cast and fully believable with regards to the role which she was required to portray. Similarly, the theme of the movie itself is ultimately a suspense/thriller. In such a way, the previous two elements that have been discussed, both work favorably in helping to promote a further level of enjoyment on the part of the viewer with respect to this particular genre film. Although there are a number of best practices that can be engaged in any film, in order to effectively represent the thriller/suspense genre, is of course necessary to have a set of actors that are fully believable within the role, able to represent key emotions, angst, anger, frustration, fear, sadness, and an

Characteristics of living organism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Characteristics of living organism - Essay Example The genetic material can exist either as double stranded or single stranded DNA/RNA. Those that have RNA, such as HIV and Influenza, are termed retroviruses and are hard to come up with vaccinations for due to the fact that they synthesize their DNA while they are in the host cell (Beckner, Kleinsmith, Hardin, and Bertoni 99-101). Viruses have their own kind of genetic material which can be stored as DNA or as RNA. The biggest reason as to why viruses are not alive is because they cannot reproduce on their own. They are biological machinery which requires a host. They work by injecting their foreign genetic material into the cell and taking over the cells processes. In the lytic cycle, the machinery in the cell is turned over to the control of the virus. It then begins to replicate copies of itself within the cell. After the maximum area in the cell has been taken up, the cell lyses releasing all the new viruses to infect other cells in the organism. In the lysogenic cycle, the virus integrates its own genetic material into that of the host where it replicates with the organisms genetic material until external factors cause it to become active, which after it enters in to the lytic cycle (Sadava, Heller, Hillis, and Berenbaum 343-48). Viruses are even sometimes used in helping with gene therapy.

London, New York and Tokyo as Global Cities Research Paper

London, New York and Tokyo as Global Cities - Research Paper Example Founded by the Romans, London stands on River Thames and has acted as a key settlement spot for almost two millennia (Beaverstock 114). New York City, located in New York State in the Northeastern expanse of the United States, is the state’s and nation’s most populous city. Courtesy of New York City, New York State is presently the United States’ largest and busiest immigration gateway. Japan’s capital city, Tokyo, is also the world’s largest metropolitan area and among Japan’s 47 prefectures. Ancient history suggests that Tokyo was a fishing village in the 15th century, but has evolved through being a cultural, religious and military stronghold to its present economic giant status. Presently, Tokyo is home to the Imperial Family of Japan and the government’s headquarters. In the context of â€Å"global cities†, London, New York and Tokyo lead the world, and are classified as Alpha++ cities. Alpha++ cities are the most globally integrated cities with other. In this perspective, global cities form critical nodes in the worldwide economic framework (U.S. Census Bureau 96). The first part of this paper will provide a brief historical background and overall economic profile of the three cities. Then, it will examine the details of size and diversity of the population and labor migration of the three cities. ... In 1176, a new stone bridge replaced the wooden one built by the Romans. During the reign of Edward III, London became a true capital (Beaverstock 121). Economic Profile Presently, finance remains the largest industry in London, with financial exports contributing largely to the balance payments of the United Kingdom. This makes it a key economic and commercial center for multiple interests on the international business platform, ranking fifth among the world’s largest city economies. In 2012, its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was estimated at slightly above $ 731 billion. Per capita GDP for the same year was at $51,798 (U.S. Census Bureau 78). With its economic profile, London as a city has been generating about 20 percent of the entire United Kingdom’s GDP for the past decade, while the metropolitan area on its own generates 30 percent. As per statistics at the beginning of 2013, with over 841,000 businesses in the private sector, London had the highest number business es than all other regions and countries in the United Kingdom. Out of the private sector businesses, 30 percent are collectively in the professional, technical, scientific and construction industries, forming a significant part of the small and medium enterprises (SMEs). The major business districts are, in ascending order, Lambeth & Southwark, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington, Westminster and The City, where economic activities range from accountancy to legal, real estate, architecture and government operations (Scheltema & Westerhuijs 69). Size and Diversity of the Population Between the 16th and 19th centuries, London’s population grew from 50,000 to 900,000 in spite of unhealthy

Leadership Essay A Good Leader

Leadership Essay A Good Leader The Qualities Of A Good Leader Introduction Leaders have an important role within an organisation related to its success, productivity and the performance of the employees. The fundamental task of a leader is to build and maintain a high performing team (Furnham, 2005, p.566). However, Yukl (2013, p.18) argues that there are numerous and diverse definitions concerning the concept of a leader as well as the term leadership, although a general consensus appears to suggest it involves a process of influencing and guiding relationships within an organisation . Guirdham (2002, p.15) emphasises the importance of leaders having good interpersonal and communication skills, which as Yukl suggest involves the ability to persuade others. Yukl (2013, p.18) further states there are additional factors that contribute to good leadership such as the situational context and the use of power. Another issue regarding the characteristics of leaders is that many theories and models have been based on Western perspectives (House and Aditya, 1997, p.409) and typically based on research with white males (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, CIPD, 2008, p.7). There is some cultural crossover in servant leadership, which according to Northouse (2013, p.219), was originally proposed by Greenleaf in the 1970s, and also has origins in ancient Eastern and Western philosophies; for example, it is deeply embedded in Arab-Islamic culture (Sarayrah, 2004, p.59). A further concern is raised by Mullins (2008, p.265) who states that determining who is a good leader is a subjective judgement and cannot be based, for example, on financial performance alone. The aim of the following essay is to investigate whether certain characteristics are related to good leadership and which can be identified in theories and models of leadership such as trait theory, transformational and charismatic leadership as well as authentic and servant leadership. Finally, there will be a brief discussion regarding interpersonal characteristics such as emotional intelligence and communication skills. Theories and Models of Leadership Trait Theories Trait theories of leadership proposed that successful leaders possessed distinctive traits or characteristics that differentiated them from unsuccessful leaders and subordinates. As Northouse (2013, p.7) mentions there are common phrases in use in society such as he was born to be a leader or she is a natural leader which suggest that people tend to think good leaders are born and not trained. The concept of leaders having certain characteristics dominated research prior to the Second World War. It was thought that individuals could be selected for leadership positions if they showed the appropriate characteristics or alternatively that traits could be taught to leaders (Furnham, 2005, p.571). Popular books, such as Stephen Coveys book, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, propose that certain traits or characteristics can be learned. Covey (2004, p.46) states that our character, basically, is a composite of our habits. Covey continues saying that habits are consistent, can be learned or unlearned and express an individuals character and how effective or ineffective they are (Covey, 2004, p.46). Covey suggests that effective people are proactive, have a clarity regarding their life-goals, manage themselves, value and respect other people, are empathic and encourage positive teamwork (Covey, 2004, p.65). The seventh habit involves taking time to sharpen the saw which Covey translates as meaning time to refresh physical, spiritual, psychological and socio-emotional dimensions of a persons character (Covey, 2004, pp.287-288). A number of characteristics and traits related to good leaders have been identified; for example, Smith and Foti (1998, p.147) undertook a study investigating the characteristics of emergent leaders and found that the traits of dominance, intelligence and self-efficacy were significantly higher in emergent leaders than other individuals who were not classified as emergent leaders. According to Furnham (2005, p.572), good leaders usually possess characteristics such as persistence, innovation and a willingness to take responsibility for their actions. Yukl (2013, p.146) similarly identifies certain characteristics related to good leaders which include a high tolerance of stress, emotional maturity, personal integrity, motivation and self-confidence. However, Furnham (2005, p.574) suggests that although there are numerous traits, there appears to be little agreement regarding which characteristics contribute to a leader being effective. According to Zaccaro, (2007, p.6) trait theories are not able to explain how leaders characteristics adapt to different situations and contexts and thus a major criticism of trait theories is that they do not consider the wider context of culture, society or the interactions with the characteristics of subordinates (Zaccaro, 2007, p.7). Examining the characteristics of good leaders implies that leaders innately possess certain personality traits although it could be suggested that some good leaders can learn through experience (Bryman, Collinson, Grint, Jackson and Uhl-Bien, 2011, p.78). The notion that good leaders can learn skills through a dynamic learning experience is supported by other researchers; for example, Rodd (2006, p.13) proposes that practitioners within the Early Years profession can become leaders through demonstrating increasing competence and by developing the personal skills necessary to become a leader. Daly and Byers (2004, p.7) suggest that good leaders will also ensure that employees have the opportunity for training and professional development which in turn may help them to become good leaders. Kolb (1984, p.25) similarly supports the idea of learning leadership skills through experience and suggests that learning involves a constant change of ideas, perspectives and opinions which are not fixed and thoughts are formed and reformed through experience and continually modified by experience. The importance of having a flexible approach is emphasised by Daly and Byers (2004, p.187) ensuring that the leader is adaptable and can implement new ideas or procedures when necessary. Even early theorists such as Taylor (1911, p.7) argued that good leaders are not born and required systematic training instead of being reliant on some unusual or extraordinary man. It is further argued by Zaccaro (2007, p.10) that because being a good leader is complex there is probably an interaction of the leaders characteristics as well as an interaction with the variables present in different situations and contexts. Theories such as Fiedlers contingency theory (Fiedler 1967, cited in Northouse, 2013, pp.123-125) were developed primarily with leaders in the military and focused on how compatible the characteristics and style of the leader were with a specific situation. Thus, effective leadership is contingent on matching a leaders style to the right setting (Northouse, 2013, p.123). A problem with both trait theories and contingency theories is that they appear to focus on the characteristics of the leader and do not consider the characteristics of, the interactions with, or the role of, subordinates. Contingency theory does not explain why some leaders are better in certain situations than other leaders and also how organisations deal with a mismatch between leaders and certain situations (Northouse, 2013, p.129). Transactional and Transformational Leaders Furnham (2005, p.588) suggests that transactional leadership can be defined as a contract between the leader and a worker where the leader achieves what they want by offering some sort of reward which is desired by the employee. There is typically a limited relationship between the leader as in certain situations (for example in the military) transactional leadership is necessary as certain actions need to be undertaken without subordinates questioning or debating issues (Bass and Bass, 2008, p.41; Bryman et al. 2011, p.55). Transactional leadership does not appear to be concerned with the characteristics of leaders and is more concerned with creating structures and systems which allow the sharing of information (Bryman et al. 2011, p.61). Transactional leadership depends on contingency reinforcement which means the subordinate understands that a reward will be received when performance goals are achieved (Bass and Riggio, 2006, p.8). Transformational leadership developed from the foundations of transactional leadership with four further characteristics namely; charisma and idealised influence which indicates that the leader is admired, respected, and trusted; inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and consideration towards individual workers (Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson, 2003, p.208; McKenna, 2005, p.411). By showing an interest in the personal development of followers there can be a subsequent increase in performance and productivity as well as creativity and innovation subordinates can often be creative which can then have an impact on the competitive advantage of the company (Bass, et al 2003,p.208). Bass and Bass (2006, p.41) also suggest that transformational leaders usually believe and support the goals of the organisation and are able to articulate the goals to subordinates and engage their support and commitment. Other characteristics identified in transformational leaders is that they show consistent behaviour and tend to have a strong focus on integrity, ethical principles and values together with being flexible and able to adapt to change (Judge and Piccolo, 2004, p.755). McKenna (2005, p.408) states that transformational leaders have characteristics such as vision and are able to motivate and inspire subordinates to share their vision. As Sir John Harvey-Jones, MBE, who was the chairman of Imperial Chemical Industries from 1982 to 1987 and has recently helped failing business shown in a BBC television programme called Troubleshooter states:- The vision is absolutely key to getting your troops together. It has to be qualitative, daring and grab the imagination. The test of it should be how quickly people will latch on to where you are going†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (cited in Mullins, 2008, p.261). The characteristics of transformational leaders are important in an organisation because they are viewed as a more effective leadership style than transactional leadership for example. Bass and Riggio (2008, p.10) suggest that many subordinates are very loyal to transformational leaders and are committed to the organisation so productivity increases and improves which Bass and Riggio (2008, p.10) suggest is one way of demonstrating the efficiency of the leader. The characteristics of transactional and transformational leaders are not mutually exclusive and there may be occasions when a leader has to show transactional characteristics as well as transformational characteristics. An example is cited by Bass and Bass (2008, p.51) which states that famous leaders such as John F. Kennedy and Abraham Lincoln displayed characteristics of both transactional and transformational leaders. Transactional leadership, for example, has been found to be more effective in a well-ordered, stable environment whereas transformational leadership is suitable in organisations that are changing rapidly such as in times of financial upheaval (McKenna, 2006, p.418). Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders As discussed previously, one characteristic of transformational leaders is charisma (Bass, et al. 2003, p.216) although there are some leaders who are characterised as being so charismatic that they are referred to as charismatic leaders. Chio (2006, p.24) defines charismatic leaders as having three additional, core characteristics which are an ability to predict future trends and be visionary; being a creative thinker, and showing empathy and empowering colleagues. According to House, 1977, (cited in McKenna, 2006, p.411) charismatic leaders can motivate subordinates to perform effectively without having to invoke their position of power; they have a vision and the ability to convince subordinates to support that vision. Further characteristics include determination, energy, self-confidence and ability; in addition they are not afraid to be unconventional (McKenna, 2006, p.411). Although charismatic leaders are unusual and exceptional in the business world, Hellriegel and Slocum (2007, p.240) use as an example Richard Branson who demonstrates the characteristic of both a transformational and a charismatic leader. Branson is characterised as someone who is prepared to follow his instincts and take risks, venturing into new territories (Boje and Smith, 2010, p.308). Branson has a flair for being slightly eccentric and is not afraid of being unconventional which Choi, as discussed previously, describes as a characteristic of charismatic leadership. Branson makes a clear statement about his company, Virgin, as being different, colourful, iconoclastic and fun-loving (Crainer and Dearlove, 2008, p.43). Bransons character appears to reflect the character of his company; for example, he appeared dressed as a Virgin bride and also abseiled down a skyscraper to promote his company (Business Pundit, 2011, n/p). The CIPD (2008, p.8) report that there is some dislike for the celebrity-like focus on so-called charismatic leaders. In the US a study investigated fifty-nine CEOs of Fortune 500 companies and investigated the link between charisma and performance over a ten year period and found there was no relationship (Tosi et al. 2004, cited in CIPD, 2008 p.8). A criticism made by Alvesson and Spicer (2010, p.9) claims that by endowing leaders with characteristics such as charisma, gives them a heroic and unselfish quality which enables them to persuade followers to pursue goals almost unquestioningly. Furthermore, Alvesson and Spicer (2010, p.64) maintain that some transformational leaders can be perceived as saint-like. Chio (2006, p.37) claims that frequently the positive aspects of charismatic leadership are emphasised and dysfunctional characteristics, such as the abuse of power, are often minimised. Chio (2006, p.36) reports that there can be very strong emotional bonds between a charismatic leader and their subordinates and in certain situations individuals may sacrifice themselves for the sake of the group to maintain harmonious relationships with others (Triandis, 1995, cited in Chio, 2006, p.36). Thus charismatic leaders can use their influence malignantly; for example, there have been reports of charismatic leaders of religious sects who are able to persuade followers to commit mass suicide. The CIPD (2008, p.8) also report on the dark-side of charisma and suggest that although some leaders may superficially appear charismatic they hide undesirable characteristics such as dishonesty and greed. By the time such characteristics are discovered the organisation and employees may have suffered irreparable harm. Research undertaken by Collins (2001, cited in CIPD, 2008, p.8) investigated common characteristics in US companies quoted on the Stock Exchange whose performance was outstanding. The findings indicated that common characteristics included an unshakable belief in their company and also a deep personal humility. These CEOs were not at all charismatic and appeared to be quite unassuming. Collins also noted that failing companies had a CEO with a gargantuan ego causing the company to fail (Collins 2001, cited in CIPD, 2008, p.8). Interpersonal Characteristics of Leaders. Characteristics of Authentic Leaders As discussed in the previous sections there have been concerns regarding unscrupulous leaders; for example, although they may appear to be charismatic they may in fact have exploitative motives (Bass and Riggio, 2008, p.5). Consequently there is a desire for leaders who are genuine and authentic (Bass and Riggio, 2008, p.xii). There appears to be some parallels between authentic leaders and servant leaders although currently there is limited research in this area according to Northouse (2013, p.235). Servant leadership focuses on the empathic characteristics of a leader towards subordinates and nurturing each employees talents and potential which is beneficial for the organisation (Northouse, 2013, p.233). Servant leadership proposes that leaders want to serve others and emphasises the altruistic characteristics of leaders who are focused on the needs of their subordinates (Greenleaf, 1977, cited in Northouse, 2013, p.219). The characteristic of the servant leader are numerous and the underlying principles involve the way in which the leader treats subordinates in terms of honesty and treating them fairly. A successful relationship between the servant leader and followers is a two-way process and followers must be accepting of the principles of empowerment and the opportunity to grow. A characteristic of leaders which seems to be related to good leadership is emotional intelligence. Goleman (1998, p.317) defines emotional intelligence as the capacity for recognising our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions in ourselves and in our relationships. Emotional intelligence involves five key factors; self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills (Goleman, 1998, p.9). It is argued that emotional intelligence is of benefit to leaders as it contributes to an awareness of their own emotions and how to regulate them as well as recognising emotions in others and having the social skills necessary to deal with other peoples emotions (Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee, 2001, n/p). Guirdham (2002, p.545) suggests that there are certain qualities that followers look for in leaders and that a leader does not automatically gain the respect from subordinates. However, such qualities vary with different situations and the type of subordinates who are expected to follow. Gaining acceptance as a leader is also more difficult where there is prejudice concerning gender, race and ethnic group, and disability. Guirdham (2002, p.545) states that in general to be accepted by subordinates the characteristics of the leader need to include knowledge, competence, status, identification with the group, motivation, being proactive in promoting the groups goals and good communication skills. As Sir John Harvey says:- You only get a company going where you want it to by leadership by example and by honest and endless communication (cited in Mullins 2008, p.261). Communication appears to be a very important characteristic of a good leader together with interpersonal relationships which is also related to emotional intelligence as discussed previously. It has been found that directive, coherent and positive communication is an effective style for leaders (Guirdham, 2002, p.550). However, other characteristics are also necessary such as trust, the way in which leaders try to persuade or influence followers and the way in which subordinates are encouraged to participate in decision making. Conclusion It can be seen from the evidence presented that identifying the characteristics of a good manager is a complex task as there are many different traits or personality characteristics involved. Additionally characteristics cannot be identified in isolation and the situation or context must also be considered. Early research, for example trait theories, focused on the leader and did not consider the role or characteristics of the subordinates. This would appear to be relevant in contemporary society as employees are more empowered than they were in the past and are therefore less likely to blindly follow a leader. Transformational and charismatic theories of leadership identify many positive qualities in leaders; however, there is the issue identified by many researchers of deceitful leaders who can cause a company to collapse as in the case of Enron and other similar examples. The characteristics of a leader need to be genuine and authentic and the theoretical perspective of servant leadership emphasises the caring aspect of leaders towards their followers. Typically servant leaders are altruistic and are concerned about the well-being of others. There are a number of characteristics which appear to be more important than others although it is difficult to isolate only a few. However, one characteristic that does seem to be high on the list for good leaders is good communication and interpersonal skills (Guirdham, 2002, p.550). References Alvesson, M. and Spicer, A. (2010). Metaphors we Lead by: Understanding Leadership in the Real World. London: Routledge. Bass, B.M., Avolio, B.J., Jung, D.I. and Berson, Y. (2003). Predicting unit performance by assessing Transformational and Transactional leadership, Journal of Applied Psychology, 88 ,207-218. Bass, B.M. and Bass, R. (2008). The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications (4th Ed) New York, NY: Free Press. Bass, B.M. and Riggio, R.E. (2006). Transformational Leadership (2nd Ed), Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., New Jersey. Boje, D. and Smith, R. (2010). Re-storying and visualising the changing entrepreneurial identities of Bill Gates and Richard Branson, Culture and Organisation,16(4), 307-331 Bono, J.E. and Judge, T.E. (2004). Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology 89(5) 901–910 Bryman,A., Collinson, D., Grint, K., Jackson, B. and Uhl-Bien, M. (2011). The Sage Handbook of Leadership. London: Sage. Business Pundit (2011). Retrieved on 10/10/2014 from: http://www.businesspundit.com/10-greatest-virgin-pr-stunts-of-all-time/ Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD, 2008). Engaging Leadership: Creating Organisations that Maximize the Potential of their People. London, CIPD. Choi, J. (2006) A Motivational Theory of Charismatic Leadership: EnvisioningEmpathy, and Empowerment, Journal of Leadership Organizational Studies, 13, 24-43. Covey, S.R. (2004). The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People: Powerful Lessons in Personal Change. New York: Simon and Schuster Inc. Crainer, S. and Dearlove, D. (2008). The heart of leadership, Business Strategy Review, The London Business School, (Autumn), 41-45. Daly, M., Byers, E. and Taylor, W. (2004). Early Years Management in Practice: A Handbook for Early Years Managers. Oxford Heinmann Education. Furnham, A. (2005). The Psychology of Behaviour at Work. East Sussex UK: Psychology Press. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. and McKee, A. (2001). Primal Leadership: The Hidden Driver of Great Performance. Harvard Business Review, 44-51 retrieved on 9/10/2014 from: http://hbr.org/2001/12/primal-leadership-the-hidden-driver-of-great-performance/ar/1 Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Guirdham, M. (2002) Interactive Behaviour at Work (3rd Edition) Essex UK: Financial Times/Prentice Hall. Hellriegel, D. and Slocum, J.W. (2007) Organisational Behaviour (11th edition) Thomson South-Western. House, R.J. and Aditya, R.N. (1997). The Social Scientific Study of Leadership: Quo Vadis? Journal of Management, 23(3), 409-473. Judge, T.A. and Piccolo, R.F. (2004) Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity Journal of Applied Psychology 89(5) 755-768 Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. McKenna, E. (2006) Business Psychology and Organisational Behaviour, 4th edition New York: Psychology Press. Mullins, L.J. (2008). Essentials of Organisational Behaviour. (2nd edition). Essex, UK: Prentice Hall. Northouse, G. (2013). Leadership: Theory and Practice. London: Sage. Rodd, J. (2006). Leadership in Early Childhood, 3rd Edition. Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press. Sarayrah, Y.K. (2004). Servant leadership in the Bedouin-Arab culture. Global Virtual Ethics Review, 5(3), 58-79. Smith, J.A. and Foti, R.J. (1998). A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence. The Leadership Quarterly, 9(2), 147-160 Taylor, F.W. (1911). Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Harper Brothers Publishers. Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in Organizations (8th edition). London: Pearson Education Zaccaro, S.J. (2007). Trait-based perspectives of leadership. American Psychologist, 62, 6-16.

Behavior and Leadership :: Relationship Oriented Leader

Welcome to this presentation on behavior and leadership. During this presentation there will be many details discussed about various types of personalities of leaders. Some styles may be familiar and some may not. There are many styles of leaders and this presentation focuses of comparing and contrasting four different styles. The final recommendation for an organization choosing a leadership style is to allow the employees to have an input on what they prefer—this may increase retention rates. There are four major types of behaviors and personalities of leadership that will be covered during this presentation. Those four types are relationship-oriented versus task-oriented and emotional intelligence versus cognitive intelligence. The relationship-oriented leader (ROL) likes to know team members very well including their most emotional traits. The ROL is very serving to team members and is the most likely type of leader to help the team with tasks when they are overwhelmed. These types of leaders strongly believe that every worker has the drive to accomplish goals and some may have been damaged by previous leaders to where they just need some the correct care showed to them. ROL’s have an open-door policy and like to communicate their values. They feel that all team members must be on the same page to operate successfully. ROL’s excel at aligning new team members into existing teams. This type of leader is service-oriented meaning that he or she puts the needs of the team before his or her own and expects team members to want to be confided in. The ROL’s moral personality makes team members trust them easily (Dubrin, 2010). The task-related leaders care deviates away from the person and towards the task the majority of the time. A task-related leader has the tendency to look down on people that have less strength than others. These types of leaders can quickly assess team members’ weaknesses, likely too quickly for a team member to feel he or she got a chance to express his or herself—fully intending to show good personality. Employees with many weaknesses in relation to the tasks will be supervised much more than stronger employees—both types of team members will be given frequent feedback about how well they are performing tasks. These types of leaders enjoy being innovative with designing electronics and devices that may assist team members in performing their tasks with ease and efficiency.

Democratization of Uruguay

Giancarlo Orichio Dr. A. Arraras CPO 3055 20 November 2008 Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Uruguay A study of democratization presumes that the meaning of democratization is self-evident: defined simply as a transition of a political system from non-democracy towards accountable and representative government practices. (Grugel 3) A concept that is valid in Uruguayan politics however, has an element of potential risk that will be the topic of further analysis. Assessment of the latter will enable us to determine why Uruguay is the only one of the four former â€Å"bureaucratic-authoritarian† regimes in South America that includes Chile, Brazil, and Argentina to attain this debatably political status quo. Guillermo O’Donnell described this type of regime as an institution that uses coercive measures to respond to what they view as threats to capitalism, whereas, the only means of opposing this repressive government is by an â€Å"unconditional commitment to democracy. (O’Donnell xiii) The hierarchically lead bureaucratic-authoritarian regime as a political actor poses a possible advantage to democratization insofar that the military-as-institution may consider that their interests are best served by extrication from the military-as-government. However, seizing power to a new governing body without imposing strong constraints is improbable and has occurred predictably in Uruguayan democratic transition. Understanding th e obstacle faced by the newly fragile democratic government in managing the military and eliminating its reserved domains brings us to the task at hand. First, I will analyze the political history in Uruguay that lead up to the no doubt controversial argument that it has attained democratic consolidation. Secondly, I will analyze the factors that either contributed or hindered its journey to representative democracy; ultimately, arriving to the conclusion that Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan describe as a â€Å"risk-prone† consolidated democracy. On 25 August 1825, Juan Antonio Lavalleja, at the head of a group of patriots called the â€Å"treinta y tres orientales,† issued a declaration of independence. After a three-year fight, a peace treaty signed on 28 August 1828 guaranteed Uruguay's independence. During this period of political turmoil and civil war, the two political parties around which Uruguayan history has traditionally revolved, the Colorados and the Blancos, were founded. â€Å"Even by West Europen standards, [Uruguay] had a tradition of high party identification and a clear sense of a left-right index. † (Linz 152) Uruguay's first president, Gen. Jose Fructuoso Rivera, an ally of Artigas, founded the Colorados. The second president, Brig. Gen. Manuel Oribe, a friend of Lavalleja, founded the Blancos. The 19th century was largely a struggle between the two factions. However, it was not until the election of Jose Batlle y Ordonez as president in 1903 that Uruguay matured as a nation. The Batlle administrations (1903–7, 1911–15) marked the period of greatest economic performance. A distinguished statesman, Batlle initiated the social welfare system codified in the Uruguayan constitution. From then on, Uruguay's social programs, funded primarily by earnings of beef and wool in foreign markets, gave Uruguay the revered soubriquet â€Å"Switzerland of South America. † After World War II, the Colorados ruled, except for an eight-year period from 1958–66. It was during the administration of President Jorge Pacheco Areco (1967–72) that Uruguay entered a political and social crisis. As wool declined in world markets, export earnings no longer kept pace with the need for greater social expenditures. Political instability resulted, most dramatically in the emergence of Uruguay's National Liberation Movement, popularly known as the Tupamaros. This well-organized urban guerrilla movement adopted Marxist and nationalist ideals while on the other hand, most nationally important actors were disloyal or at best semi-loyal to the already established democratic regime. Their revolutionary activities, coupled with the worsening economic situation, exacerbated Uruguay's political uncertainty. Gradually, the military-as institution assumed a greater role in government and by 1973 was in complete control of the political system. By the end of 1973, the Tupamaros had been successfully controlled and suppressed by the military-as-institution. In terms of systematic repression, as Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan stated, â€Å"Uruguay was the most deeply repressive of the four South American bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes. (Linz 152) Amnesty international denounced Uruguay for human rights violations; in 1979, they estimated the number of political prisoners jailed at a ratio of 1 per 600, Chile and Argentina were respectively 1 in 2,000 and 1 in 1,200. (Linz 152) By 1977 the military announced that they would devise a new constitution with the intentions to â€Å"strengthen democracy. † The new constitution would be submitted to a plebiscite in 1980, and if ratified elections with a single presidential candidate nominated by both the Colorados and the Blancos and approved by the military would be held the following year. The post-authoritarian transition to democracy began in Uruguay when the democratic opposition won the plebiscite. By the 1980’s the military did not have an offensive plan to lift Uruguay from its uninterrupted bad economic performance, the Tupamaros had in fact been defeated by 1973, so a defense project against urban guerrilla was unnecessary. The military had no civil or political support, and with there loss in the plebiscite, whose results they said they would respect, tarnished the military’s political leverage significantly. Thus, the democratic opposition in the form of the two major catch all political parties that have governed de jure since the 19 century presented a non threatening alternative despite their disloyal behavior before the authoritarian coup d’etat . As previously touched on, the opportunities presented by a hierarchical military favoring democratic transition is the possibility that the leading officers of the military-as-institution will come to the conclusion that the cost of non democratic rule is greater than the cost of extrication. With the main interest resting in a stable state that will in turn allow the military to become a functioning sector of the state apparatus. However, this does not preclude the possibility of non democratic prerogatives in the transfer. The party-military negotiation called the Naval Club Pact disqualified Wilson Ferreira of the Blanco party to be nominated as president, pushed for guarantees concerning their own autonomy, and the most damaging to democracy was the curtailment of human right trails for military officials. Elections were held in 1985 were Julio Maria Sanguinetti from the Colorado party became the first democratically elected candidate in the 1977 constitution. Because of strong public discontent with Military Amnesty granted during the transition, the curtailment was sent to a referendum in 1989, were it approved the amnesty and gained democratic legitimacy by 57%. It has to be stated that the majority of Uruguayan opposed the amnesty, however the fragile democratic government confronted a troubling decision. They could have breached the Naval Club Pact and tried military officer for heir human right offenses and risked military refusal and therefore a crisis in their own authority. Or they could have hastily granted them amnesty at the cost of lowered prestige in the new democracy. It is safe to assume that the electorate voted to let the amnesty law stand not because it was just but more so to avoid a crisis. By 1992 the left-wing Frente Amplio was integrated into Uruguayan politics without any other major party leaders deeming them unacceptable arriving to the quarrelsome argument that Uruguay became a consolidated democracy. Uruguay's economic development can be divided into two starkly contrasting periods. During the first period, when it earned its valued sobriquet â€Å"Switzerland of South America,† from the late 1800s until the 1950s, Uruguay achieved remarkable growth and a high standard of living. Expanding livestock exports; principally beef and wool accounted for its economic development. The advanced social welfare programs, which redistributed wealth from the livestock sector to the rest of the economy, raised the standard of living for the majority of the population and contributed to the development of new industries. When export earnings faltered in the 1950s, however, the fabric of Uruguay's economy had begun to unravel. The country entered a decades-long period of economic stagnation. It was during the administration of President Jorge Pacheco Areco (1967–72) that Uruguay entered a political and social crisis. As wool and beef demands declined in world markets, export earnings no longer kept pace with the need for greater social expenditures causing bad economic performance that lead to the bureaucratic-authoritarian take over of government. Although the old democratic regime was not able to lift economic prosperity neither was the military-as-government. Bad economic performance still plagued the nation throughout authoritarian rule. By 1980 the military had no agenda in combating the bad economic performance that helped unveil the inadequacies of the non democratic regime. In fact, economic performance has been in a decline since 1950’s until today. Although the legitimacy that the democratic system posses in Uruguay is strong, the capacity, or as Stepan and Linz say, the â€Å"efficacy† of the democratic system in resolving the stagnant economy is low. Thus, making Uruguay’s democracy risk-prone due to an unsolved economic performance. Since the economy has been the number one issue affecting Uruguayans since the end of their golden era in the early 19 century. A public opinion poll was asked to upper class respondents weather a political alternative from the authoritarian regime at the time would speed rather than slow economic recuperation. By a margin of 2 to 1 they believed it would, more surprisingly was a 7 to 1 response to the question if a new democratic regime would bring more tranquility and public order. In 1985, of the nine institutions evaluated in terms of trust, political parties ranked highest with a net score of 57 and the armed forces with a net score of negative 73. Only 5% viewed the military sympathetically while 78% viewed the military with antipathy. (Linz 153) In my studies concerning democratization never did democracy start with such rejection of the political role of the military from all class coalitions alike. During the first half on the 19th century the norm was a two party system similar to that of the United States in that there was â€Å"low fragmentation and low polarization. † (Linz 163) However, contrary to the American vetting process the Uruguayan had a peculiar electoral system known as the double simultaneous vote that allows all parties to run multiple candidate for the presidency. This did not present a problem until after the 1960’s when presidents routinely were elected with less than 25% of the vote because of the amount of candidates running. This creates party fragmentation that can hinder democracy. The fact that the old regime political structure remains untouched means that the opportunity for constitutional change was missed and this presents a potential democratic upheaval. Behaviorally, by 1968-73 political elites were at best semi-loyal to the democratic system that soon caused the authoritarian regime to take over government, and one thing that can be done from previous failures in democratic attempts is to learn from their missteps. Stepan and Linz clearly state that for the consolidation of democracy loyalty to the system as well as the perception that all other parties are loyal to the democratic process plays a crucial role. (Linz 156) By 1985 not one of the twelve major factions of the three leading parties perceived the other parties to be acting disloyal. As well as the mere fact that the once unacceptable left-wing party, Frente Amplio, held the mayoral position of Montevideo by 1989 and then the presidency by 2004 demonstrates the positive elite choices that contributed to democracy. Since Uruguay’s troublesome and long fought battle for independence in August 25, 1828 Uruguay did not encounter any â€Å"intermestic† stateness problems. As far as Washington relations to Latin America and in particular Uruguay, the United States continues to pursue hegemony over the region. The neo-liberal reforms in place in the region are bound by the restraints of the global market and for a country like Uruguay it is very difficult to compete with such superpowers. These reforms have often left the lower classes impoverish and desperate while the upper classes and Washington feed their gluttonous appetites. The civilian government in Uruguay has found it increasingly difficult to enforce these foreign economic influences that can potentially result in authoritarian means of accomplishment. As a member of MERCOSUR, Mercado Comun del Sur, Uruguay faced foreign political influences to liberalize its economy during the 1990s, as economic giants, and MERCOSUR partners Brazil and Argentina had done. This can be potentially devastating to democracy except that Uruguay in the 1980’s had a gross national product (GNP) per capita income of 2,820, higher than any of its MERCOSUR counterparts. However, we must remember that Uruguay has been experiencing a downward economic performance since the mid 1900’s and is a potential risk that needs to be addressed to preserve democracy. United States foreign policy in Uruguay and in the rest of Latin America has encouraged for the liberalization of markets. The side effect of neo-liberal reform is the zero-sum element that produces excessive amounts of losers. Essentially the contrary to what it is intended to produce. These superpower polices implemented creates few winners most of which are â€Å"elites with government connection [that] have been the primary beneficiaries of the sweeping economic transformation. † (Kingstone 196) This transcends business when the only means of preserving this market economy is through potential authoritarian means. The contentious claim that Uruguay is a consolidated democracy since 1992 is threefold, first, because of the reluctance to fix the already proven failed double simultaneous vote electoral system. Secondly, because of civil-military relations concerning human rights violation during authoritarian rule, although was legitimized by democratic referendum, but more importantly budgetary cuts that have been implemented as a result of bad economic performance. Finally, and most importantly, Uruguayans accept democracy as the most legitimate political game, but also recognize its incapacity to fix the troubling economy, producing this efficacy-legitimacy gap that can be potentially destructive for democracy. These three factors give Uruguay the title of a risk-prone democracy. Works Cited Kingstone, Peter R. , ed. Readings in Latin American Politics. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006. Linz, Juan, and Alfred Stepan. Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. O’Donnell, Guillermo. Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics. Berkley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1973.